Reasons to Ban Cloning :: essays research papers

Cloning is defined as the process of asexually producing a group of cells, all genetically identical, from a single ancestor (College Library, 2006).† Cloning should be banned all around the world for many reasons, including the risks to the thing that is being cloned, cloning reduces genetic differences and finally it is not ethical. Almost every clone has mysteriously died even before they are born. First of all, â€Å"Australia’s first cloned sheep appeared to be healthy and energetic the day she died, during the autopsy they could not find the cause (Castro, 2005).† There are many risks to cloning and you are seldom able to identify the cause of their death. â€Å"More than 90% of cloning attempts fail (Human Genome Program, 2006).† Most cloned animals died mysteriously even before they were born or when they were very young, so there is hardly any information on how clones age. Clones may be born with a normal looking body but may have internal functioning problems. â€Å"Cloned animals tend to have more compromised immune function and higher rates of infection, tumor growth, and other disorders (Human Genome Program, 2006).† There are many risks of cloning and a major factor is genetic differences. Secondly, â€Å"the most the human race has to loose by playing around with cloning is that the genetic diversity would be lost (Andrea Castro, 2005).† Reducing the genetic differences will produce clones that are grossly overlarge, many animals will be born with genetic mutations, and there will be a higher â€Å"risk of disease transfer (Saskaschools, 2003). â€Å"A review of all the world's cloned animals suggests that every one of them is genetically and physically defective (Leake, 2002).† Mutations will be passed on to the younger generation because if a cloned species has a mutation in their DNA this mutation will be passed on. Cloning has been linked with diseases of ageing, arthritis and, cancer. Last of all, Cloning is not ethical, many religious groups look down upon cloning and think it’s not proper because they think it’s like playing God. Many scientists were mainly thinking about cloning animals and, most likely, humans in the future to harvest their organs and then kill them. â€Å"Who would actually like to be harvested and killed for their organs?† â€Å"Human cloning exploits human beings for our own self-gratification (Dodson, 2003).† A person paying enough money could get a corrupt scientist to clone anybody they wanted, like movie stars, music stars, athletes, etc (Andrea Castro 2005),† whether it be our desire for new medical treatments or our desire to have children on our own genetic terms (Dodson, 2003).

The Urban Legend of Tommy Hilfiger :: essays research papers fc

The Truth about the Rumor of Tommy Hilfiger A big controversy happened, the well-known Fashion Designer Tommy Hilfiger was on the Oprah show. She asked him if it was true if he said he did not make clothes for Blacks and Asians, his clothes were intended for upper class White people. When he admitted he said those things, she asked him to leave. This E-Mail is an Urban Legend. Juicy Emails like these are simply for entertainment purposes only and should not be taken seriously. Like junk mail it should be emptied into the recycle bin. People assume if an E-mail is sent to them or if a friend mentioned the incident then it must be true. How could someone write something so mean and cruel and spread it through emails? Thomas Craughwell explains that â€Å"fear, paranoia, envy and suspicion of unfamiliar† are reasons why urban legends such as Tommy Hilfiger are passed around (Craughwell 10). People read newspapers such as the Inquirer and read junk E-mails at work to make the day go by. Richard Roeper describes people as â€Å"today’s information consumer†, who are â€Å"savvy, jaded and cynical† (Roeper 10). It’s no secret that people can be gullible when it comes to interesting news. Roper states that people are as â€Å"willing as ever to believe stories that happened to best friend’s brother’s accountant† (Roper 11). People have gotten too lazy to look up information for themselves and look for quick fixes, instead of facts. The Tommy Hilfiger Rumor has all of the signs of the urban legend. As Defined by Craughwell â€Å"urban legends are usually passed by word of mouth and by E-mail†. Urban legends have many variations (Craughwell 9,13). David Emery from About.com has two of the most common variations of the E-mail in his article. Before there were any rumors of him on the Oprah Show, It was a â€Å"news article† in a â€Å"Philippian tabloid in 1996† as Barbara Mikkelson explains in her article. According to Barbara Mikkelson, the rumor was altered again with him being on the CNN style show with Elsa Klensch . In this rumor he did not comment on black people. He commented about â€Å"Asian people not looking right in the clothes† (Barbara Mikkelson). Although the rumors are being shown to be not true, they are still being passed around to this day (David Emery). People who are in the know about rumors made inquiries to the Anti Defamation League.

Malware and Spyware

Malware Malware,  short for  malicious  (or malevolent)  software, is software used or created by attackers to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. It can appear in the form of  code,  scripts, active content, and other software. ‘Malware' is a general term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software. This malware will operate invisibly, often without displaying itself in your Task Manager. To top it off, malware usually refuses to be uninstalled through your control panel, and requires special tools to delete them from your drive.Yes, this is a direct cousin to viruses, but with a broader portfolio of wicked intentions. Malware includes  computer viruses,  worms,  trojan horses,  spyware,  adware, and other malicious programs. However, some malware is disguised as genuine software, and may come from an official company website. Malware is often used against individua ls to gain personal information such as social security numbers, bank or credit card numbers, and so on. Left unguarded, personal and  networked  computers can be at considerable risk against these threats.Various factors make a system more vulnerable to malware: * Homogeneity: e. g. when all computers in a  network  run the same operating system; upon exploiting one, one can exploit them all. * Weight of numbers: simply because the vast majority of existing malware is written to attack Windows systems, then Windows systems are more vulnerable to succumbing to malware attacks. * Defects: malware using defects in the operating system design. * Unconfirmed  code: code from a  floppy disk,  CD-ROM  or  USB  device may be  executed  without the user’s permission. Over-privileged  users: some systems allow all users to modify their internal structures. * Over-privileged  code: some systems allow code  executed  by a user to access all rights of that user. * Malwares affect networks easily because of the use of same OS. What does malware do? The most common malware functions are: 1. Malware steals your personal information and address book (identity theft and keystroke-logging). 2. Malware floods your browser with pop-up advertising. 3. Malware spams your inbox with advertising email. 4. Malware slows down your connection. 5.Malware hijacks your browser and redirects you to an advertising or a phishing-con web page. 6. Malware uses your computer as a secret server to broadcast pornography files. 7. Malware slows down or crashes your computer. Spyware Spyware  is a type of  malware  (malicious software) installed on  computers  that collects information about users without their knowledge. The presence of spyware is typically hidden from the user and can be difficult to detect. Some spyware, such askeyloggers, may be installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or  public computer  intentionally in order to monit or users.While the term  spyware  suggests software that monitors a user's computing, the functions of spyware can extend beyond simple monitoring. Spyware can collect almost any type of data, including  personal information  like  Internet surfing  habits, user logins, and bank or credit account information. Most spyware is installed without users' knowledge, or by using deceptive tactics. Spyware may try to deceive users by bundling itself with desirable software. Some spyware authors infect a system through security holes in the Web browser or in other software.When the user navigates to a Web page controlled by the spyware author, the page contains code which attacks the browser and forces the download and installation of spyware. Spyware also has the same effects as malware has. How to protect your computer from spyware and malware? Here is the checklist for detecting and destroying malware * Install two or three different  anti-spyware programs  (â€Å"spyware cleaners†) on your computer, and update their definition lists regularly. Because every anti-spyware cleaner is imperfect, it is necessary to use combinations of these programs to catch the greatest breadth of malware.Also, the anti-spyware manufacturers regularly add new entries to their â€Å"definition† lists, just like anti-virus software. Make sure to keep your spyware cleaners updated with these lists! * Avoiding and destroying malware/spyware is not instant, and it is not a one-time event. Instead, stopping spyware/malware is a long-term game that is exactly like cleaning dirt out of your home. You need constant vigilance, and a regular habit of cleaning malware out of your computer every week. Build a weekly habit of â€Å"scan and detect†. This should also be done whenever you install new software.Many anti-spyware programs can be set to automatically perform scan-and-detect nightly. * Carefully read every EULA (end user license agreement) before clicki ng â€Å"accept†. If you see the phrase â€Å"3rd-party software may be installed†, make sure to follow the software install with a spyware cleaning. * Educate yourself on the latest strains of malware. In particular, start visiting these recommended anti-spyware sites, and update yourself on the latest malicious programs. * Egs of antimalware programs * Antivirus/Antispyware at About * Network Security at About PestPatrol. com database * Spywareguide. com * SpywareWarrior. com * SurferBeware. com * Cexx. org * Save your data, and backup often. Below are 5 easy steps you can follow to try to avoid and, if not avoid, at least detect and remove these programs from your computer system: * Be Careful Where You Download: Unscrupulous programs often come from unscrupulous sites. If you are looking for a freeware or shareware program for a specific purpose try searching reputable sites * Read the EULA: Eula is End User License Agreement.The EULA is a legal agreement you are m aking with the software vendor. Without reading it you may be unwittingly agreeing to install spyware or a variety of other questionable actions that may not be worth it to you. Sometimes the better answer is â€Å"No, I do not accept. † * Read the instructions carefully before you click. * Protect Your System through Antivirus softwares. * Scan Your System through antivirus antivirus softwares, firewalls and other protective measures.

Discuss the contribution that psychology has made to contemporary society

Since Psychology has been known as a subject, it is very broad, and has contributed to many areas of society to the work place, school, prison and institutions. In the work place, managers are trained to deal and communicate effectively with employees and customers alike. This helps to keep both parties happy, and this causes less distress. Most work places are under law in which even people with mental health issues are allowed to be employed, and only in severe cases they will be unaccepted to the job. An occupational psychologist is able to find a job for those who are disabled and that would be able to meet their skills and knowledge. A couple of centuries ago, people who had mental illnesses wouldn't be able to get a job, and are likely to be distinguished as ‘insane' or ‘crazy', because of the lack of help that was given at that time. In the school, the National Curriculum has been helped by the research of Psychology by the reflection of Piaget's stages – showing that children are likely to cope with ideas when they are ready or at a given age. For example, those children who are at the concrete operation stage at age 11 should not be given anything to do with formal reasoning. Although, Vygotsky believed in scaffolding, this means by actively participating in groups to their level of understanding to be able to make them understand what they are being taught better. In prison, they use token economy systems which is based on operant conditioning for those who have good behaviour they are reinforced with tokens, and these can be saved up to be able to have a privileges to go out. The token economy system allow for prisoners to continue their repeated good behaviour. During court sessions they need to know whether someone is classified as insane, and whether they should go to psychiatric hospital or ward, or to prison because they are a criminal. In institutions, they also use the operant conditioning of token economy systems to be able to have the patients do good behaviour and to be reinforced with tokens. This allows to substitute the tokens to be able to have leave or be able to do more activities within the institution. Institutions also have social skills to help those with mental health issues to be able to understand how to make social interactions with other people – many of both offenders as well as patients lack these skills, and these can be developed through number of ways such as role play and rehearsal.

Applied Linguistics

Language can be viewed as a social fact, as a psychological state (mental dictionary), as a set of structures (a grammatical system: a system to what orders the words have to come in if they are to make sense), or as a collection of outputs (utterances/ sentences: spoken or written). Language can be viewed as a set of choices (different ways of saying a sentence), a set of contrasts (an inversion of sentences).Idiolect (I-language: language of the individual): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a reticular language. In a broader sense, someone†s idiolect includes their way of communicating; for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others.In a narrower sense, an idiolect might entail features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others, such as o voice quality ( the overall impression that a listener obtains of a speake r†s voice or characteristics of a particular voice that enable the listener to distinguish one voice from another, such as when a person is able to identify a telephone caller) o pitch when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others) o speech rhythm (rhythm in speech is created by the contracting or relaxing of chest muscles).Many linguists prefer to use the term IDIOLECT for the language of an individual. So you do not speak English, you speak your idiolect. That seems simple enough until we ask what English† consists of. Presumably it consists of the sum of all the idiolect of people who we agree are speaking English. Do I-language: an approach to language which sees it as an internal property of the unman mind and as not something external or an attempt to construct grammars showing the way human mind structures language and which (universal) principles are involved.E-language: an approach to language which describes the general structures and patterns. E-language= Langue (Assure) = Competence (Chomsky): the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge (agree to use). Langue is the ideal form of a language. Parole (Assure): the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Competence: a person†s internalized grammar of a language. This means a person†s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.It also includes a person†s knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I want going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized but a not real person who would have a comp lete knowledge of the whole language. Performance: a person†s actual use of language.A difference is made between a person†s knowledge of the language (competence) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and understanding sentences (performance). The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be seen, for example, in the production of long and complex sentences. People may have the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (=perform) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence.They may run out of breath, or their sterner may get bored or forget what has been said if the sentence is too long. In using language, people make errors or false starts. These may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular occasion may not refl ect their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance. Keywords Language: the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds or written representation into larger unit e. G. Orpheus, word, sentence, utterance. A social fact, a kind of social contract, or a set of structure r as a collection of output. Idiolect: langue for specific group of people or language for individual; only the speaker of this language can understand. Utterance: a unit of analysis in speech which has been defined in various way but commonly as a sequence of words within a single person's turn at talk that fall under a single intonation contour. Universal grammar: a thorny which claims to account for grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.Langue: part of language which is not complete in any individual, but exists only in the collectivity. Parole: language that is used individually. (I-language) E-language : is the â€Å"external† manifestation of the â€Å"internally' (mentally) represented grammar of many individual. It is appropriate for social, political, mathematical and logical statement. I-language: language viewed as internal property of human mind or a computational system in human brain. Answer Sq 1 . The author says, â€Å"A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. † What does this mean?This means that language is the mean of communication which not only an individual but also all people in the community accept and understand it as a hole. People use language as a contract for their daily life, since language is a social fact that people use to understand each other and purposely set up the proof of their will or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that follow? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B are understandable; that is, we can say that they are language which is seen as a set of choice and a set of contrast.A set of choice or contrast means that a group of word are systematically in order that makes us understand what the intention of the sentence is. However, sentence C does not make sense at all, and it is not a language. 3. What is the difference between â€Å"speak a grammar† and â€Å"speak a language†? Speak a language means to speak a language that make other people understand; that is, it refers to when people in the society speak language of the society (E-language), which they use it as mean of communication.However, â€Å"speak grammar† refers to when an individual speak his or her own language sticking deep inside their mind or brain, and cannot be understood by others. This language is not for society, but for individual only. 4. Assure (1969) make an analogy as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists externally to the way in which it is performed: that existence is comparable to langue in language study. The actual performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be comparable to parole. ‘ Use this analogy to explain what E-language and I-language are.This means that E-language is the same as langue, which refers to the language that is externally used in the society and it is accepted as the language of the society, which people use it as the mean of contract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing only in the individual, and usually it is not understood by others and considered as the error of language for people in the society. 5. Language is a set of choice and a set of contrast, yet why cant we always choose to organize the word in utterances in our preferred way?Even though language is a set of choice and contrast, we cannot Just organize language as we want because our own organization of language can become l- language which is not understood by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual only, and only the speaker can understand it. Chapter 2: Components of Language Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we hear and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words or each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language. /p/, lb/ are homes of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. O English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the different versions of the phoneme regularly produc ed in actual speech ( in the mouth). Allophone is a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air (aspirated) than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. Minimal pair is when two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme), occurring in the same position, and which also differ in meaning. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut are some examples of minimal pairs.The Sound Patterns of Language Minimal set is when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word). For example, bet-set-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of minimal set. Phonetics's is the arrangements of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant groups /SSP/ and /star/ can occur at the beginning o f a word, as in sprout, strain, but they cannot occur at the end of a word.Syllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consists of five syllables: term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and rhyme which has two parts nucleus (vowel) and coda (consonant(s)). The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words can be C.V. (green), PVC (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. Consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonants. Consonants clusters may occur at the beginning of a word (an initial cluster), at the end of a word (a final cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co-articulation is the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has two well-known effects: assimilation and elision. O Assimilation occurs when a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or when two sound seg ments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other. O Elision is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyone†s normal beech entails assimilation and elision which should be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. Words and Word-formation Process -Etymology: the study of the origin and history of a word -Coinage: the invention of totally new terms (Ex: aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing: words that is borrowed from other languages (Ex: Piano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding: two separate words are Joint together (bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, textbook) -Blending: combination of 2 separate forms to produce a single new term. Ex: motel (motor/ hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping: reduction of words more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex: condo (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation: reduction of words which also change the function, usually from noun to verb.Ex: emote (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion: a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex: Someone has to chair the meeting. Or We bottled the homebred – Acronyms: new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex: CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic teller machine), PIN (personal identification number) -Derivation: the affixes (prefix & suffix) added to the beginning or the end of a word.Ex: unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless Morphology: the study of forms Morphology Morpheme: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Lexical Free functional Morpheme derivation bound inflectional Free morpheme: morpheme that can stand by themselves as single word. – Lexical morpheme: set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example: Car, red, drive. – Functional morpheme: functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronoun. For expo: and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme: morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attached to another forms. – Derivation morpheme: the affixes that make words into a different grammatical category from stem. For expo: -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme: set of bound morphemes to indicate aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 inflections attached to nouns, -g's (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections attached to verbs, -s (3rd person singular), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections attached to adjectives: -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma: the group or set o f different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example: -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar Traditional grammar: a grammar which is usually based on earlier grammar of Latin r Greek and applied to the analysis of newer† languages such as English. Agreement: In English sentence, agreement is based on the category of number, whether the noun is singular or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others). The form the verb must also be described in terms of tense. The final category is gender. Gender vs. Grammatical gender: Gender† refers to the natural gender or biological gender, that is, male or female and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to female entities, whereas (he, his) refer to male entities. Grammatical Gender† refers to the typ es of nouns which is considered masculine and feminine.For example, in Spanish there are article to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the moon). It does not imply that the moon†s sex is female or the sun†s male. The grammar simply states this way to use article with different noun. The prescriptive approach: Grammarian in the eighteen century in English create rule for the proper use of English. For example: You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would correct sentences like: Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be skeptical of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. Let†s study this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive†. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirk†s infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, according to Tradi tional grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is clear that infinitive cannot be separated from a word because Latin infinitives are single words.However, it is not appropriate to carry this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive approach Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and attempted to describe the regular structure of the language as it was used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural Analysis Structural analysis† main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. The use of test-frame† that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example: By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. Immediate Constituent Analysis: is designed to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases. Applied Linguistics Language can be viewed as a social fact, as a psychological state (mental dictionary), as a set of structures (a grammatical system: a system to what orders the words have to come in if they are to make sense), or as a collection of outputs (utterances/ sentences: spoken or written). Language can be viewed as a set of choices (different ways of saying a sentence), a set of contrasts (an inversion of sentences).Idiolect (I-language: language of the individual): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a reticular language. In a broader sense, someone†s idiolect includes their way of communicating; for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others.In a narrower sense, an idiolect might entail features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish one individual from others, such as o voice quality ( the overall impression that a listener obtains of a speake r†s voice or characteristics of a particular voice that enable the listener to distinguish one voice from another, such as when a person is able to identify a telephone caller) o pitch when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others) o speech rhythm (rhythm in speech is created by the contracting or relaxing of chest muscles).Many linguists prefer to use the term IDIOLECT for the language of an individual. So you do not speak English, you speak your idiolect. That seems simple enough until we ask what English† consists of. Presumably it consists of the sum of all the idiolect of people who we agree are speaking English. Do I-language: an approach to language which sees it as an internal property of the unman mind and as not something external or an attempt to construct grammars showing the way human mind structures language and which (universal) principles are involved.E-language: an approach to language which describes the general structures and patterns. E-language= Langue (Assure) = Competence (Chomsky): the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge (agree to use). Langue is the ideal form of a language. Parole (Assure): the actual use of language by people in speech or writing. Competence: a person†s internalized grammar of a language. This means a person†s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.It also includes a person†s knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I want going home even though all the words in it are English words. Competence often refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized but a not real person who would have a comp lete knowledge of the whole language. Performance: a person†s actual use of language.A difference is made between a person†s knowledge of the language (competence) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and understanding sentences (performance). The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be seen, for example, in the production of long and complex sentences. People may have the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they actually attempt to use this knowledge (=perform) there are many reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses in any one sentence.They may run out of breath, or their sterner may get bored or forget what has been said if the sentence is too long. In using language, people make errors or false starts. These may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular occasion may not refl ect their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance. Keywords Language: the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds or written representation into larger unit e. G. Orpheus, word, sentence, utterance. A social fact, a kind of social contract, or a set of structure r as a collection of output. Idiolect: langue for specific group of people or language for individual; only the speaker of this language can understand. Utterance: a unit of analysis in speech which has been defined in various way but commonly as a sequence of words within a single person's turn at talk that fall under a single intonation contour. Universal grammar: a thorny which claims to account for grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.Langue: part of language which is not complete in any individual, but exists only in the collectivity. Parole: language that is used individually. (I-language) E-language : is the â€Å"external† manifestation of the â€Å"internally' (mentally) represented grammar of many individual. It is appropriate for social, political, mathematical and logical statement. I-language: language viewed as internal property of human mind or a computational system in human brain. Answer Sq 1 . The author says, â€Å"A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. † What does this mean?This means that language is the mean of communication which not only an individual but also all people in the community accept and understand it as a hole. People use language as a contract for their daily life, since language is a social fact that people use to understand each other and purposely set up the proof of their will or promise. 2. What do you understand from the examples that follow? A. Kim kissed crocodile. B. The crocodile kissed Kim. C. Kissed crocodile Kim the. Sentence A and B are understandable; that is, we can say that they are language which is seen as a set of choice and a set of contrast.A set of choice or contrast means that a group of word are systematically in order that makes us understand what the intention of the sentence is. However, sentence C does not make sense at all, and it is not a language. 3. What is the difference between â€Å"speak a grammar† and â€Å"speak a language†? Speak a language means to speak a language that make other people understand; that is, it refers to when people in the society speak language of the society (E-language), which they use it as mean of communication.However, â€Å"speak grammar† refers to when an individual speak his or her own language sticking deep inside their mind or brain, and cannot be understood by others. This language is not for society, but for individual only. 4. Assure (1969) make an analogy as saying When orchestra plays a symphony, the symphony exists externally to the way in which it is performed: that existence is comparable to langue in language study. The actual performance, which may contain idiosyncrasies or errors, is to be comparable to parole. ‘ Use this analogy to explain what E-language and I-language are.This means that E-language is the same as langue, which refers to the language that is externally used in the society and it is accepted as the language of the society, which people use it as the mean of contract and communication. However, I-language s equalized to parole referring to the language existing only in the individual, and usually it is not understood by others and considered as the error of language for people in the society. 5. Language is a set of choice and a set of contrast, yet why cant we always choose to organize the word in utterances in our preferred way?Even though language is a set of choice and contrast, we cannot Just organize language as we want because our own organization of language can become l- language which is not understood by others. This is because I-language is the language for individual only, and only the speaker can understand it. Chapter 2: Components of Language Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we hear and say. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words or each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language. /p/, lb/ are homes of English. O Phoneme has contrastive property. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. O English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.Phone is the different versions of the phoneme regularly produc ed in actual speech ( in the mouth). Allophone is a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air (aspirated) than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. Minimal pair is when two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme), occurring in the same position, and which also differ in meaning. For example, fan-van, bet-bat, site-side, put-shut are some examples of minimal pairs.The Sound Patterns of Language Minimal set is when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word). For example, bet-set-vet-get-let and big-pig-rig-fig-wig are examples of minimal set. Phonetics's is the arrangements of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) in a language. For example, in English, the consonant groups /SSP/ and /star/ can occur at the beginning o f a word, as in sprout, strain, but they cannot occur at the end of a word.Syllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. For example, the word terminology consists of five syllables: term-mi-no-lo- gay. O A syllable contains onset (consonant(s)) and rhyme which has two parts nucleus (vowel) and coda (consonant(s)). The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words can be C.V. (green), PVC (eggs), C.V. (them), etc. Consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonants. Consonants clusters may occur at the beginning of a word (an initial cluster), at the end of a word (a final cluster) or within a word (a medial cluster).Co-articulation is the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound. Circulation has two well-known effects: assimilation and elision. O Assimilation occurs when a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows or precedes it, or when two sound seg ments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other. O Elision is the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. O Everyone†s normal beech entails assimilation and elision which should be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness.The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlies the actual use of sounds in language. Words and Word-formation Process -Etymology: the study of the origin and history of a word -Coinage: the invention of totally new terms (Ex: aspirin, nylon, Baseline) -Borrowing: words that is borrowed from other languages (Ex: Piano(lately), Sofa(Arabic),Yogurt(Turkish)) -Compounding: two separate words are Joint together (bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, textbook) -Blending: combination of 2 separate forms to produce a single new term. Ex: motel (motor/ hotel), smog (smoke/haze) -Clipping: reduction of words more than one syllable to a shorter form. Ex: condo (condominium), bra (brassiere), ad (advertisement) -Facilitation: reduction of words which also change the function, usually from noun to verb.Ex: emote (from Emotion), donate (from Donation), babysat (from Babysitter) -Conversion: a change in the function of a word, esp. noun becomes verb without any deduction. Ex: Someone has to chair the meeting. Or We bottled the homebred – Acronyms: new words that are formed from initial letters of a set of other words. Ex: CD (compact disk), VS. (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic teller machine), PIN (personal identification number) -Derivation: the affixes (prefix & suffix) added to the beginning or the end of a word.Ex: unhappy, misrepresent, Joyful, careless Morphology: the study of forms Morphology Morpheme: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Lexical Free functional Morpheme derivation bound inflectional Free morpheme: morpheme that can stand by themselves as single word. – Lexical morpheme: set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs. For example: Car, red, drive. – Functional morpheme: functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronoun. For expo: and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in the, them.Bound morpheme: morpheme that cannot stand alone and must attached to another forms. – Derivation morpheme: the affixes that make words into a different grammatical category from stem. For expo: -full, -less, re-, UN- Inflectional morpheme: set of bound morphemes to indicate aspects of the aromatically function of a word. 2 inflections attached to nouns, -g's (possessive) and -s (plural). 4 inflections attached to verbs, -s (3rd person singular), -inning (present participle), -De (past tense) and -en (past participle). Inflections attached to adjectives: -est. (superlative) and -re (comparative). Lymphoma: the group or set o f different morphs, all versions of one morpheme OR any of the different forms of a morpheme. For example: -s, -sees, 0 (zero morph). They are all lymphomas of the plural morpheme. Grammar Traditional grammar: a grammar which is usually based on earlier grammar of Latin r Greek and applied to the analysis of newer† languages such as English. Agreement: In English sentence, agreement is based on the category of number, whether the noun is singular or plural.It is also based on the category of person, that is, first person (involving the speaker), second person (involving the hearer) and third person (involving any others). The form the verb must also be described in terms of tense. The final category is gender. Gender vs. Grammatical gender: Gender† refers to the natural gender or biological gender, that is, male or female and what words agree with it. She, her) refer to female entities, whereas (he, his) refer to male entities. Grammatical Gender† refers to the typ es of nouns which is considered masculine and feminine.For example, in Spanish there are article to call a noun in feminine (la) or masculine (la) such el sol ( the sun), la ulna (the moon). It does not imply that the moon†s sex is female or the sun†s male. The grammar simply states this way to use article with different noun. The prescriptive approach: Grammarian in the eighteen century in English create rule for the proper use of English. For example: You must not split an infinitive. You must not end a sentence with a preposition. Therefore, traditional teacher would correct sentences like: Who did you go with? O With whom did you go? However, we should be skeptical of the origin of some of these rules and asking whether they are appropriately applied to the English language. Let†s study this traditional rule Mimi must not split an infinitive†. The book elaborates by using Captain Kirk†s infinitive. To boldly go, to solemnly swear, according to Tradi tional grammar, is inappropriate. To go boldly, boldly to go should be the appropriate form. In Latin grammar, it is clear that infinitive cannot be separated from a word because Latin infinitives are single words.However, it is not appropriate to carry this idea over to English where the infinitive form does not consist of a single form, but of two words, to and go. The descriptive approach Analysts collected samples of the language they were interested in and attempted to describe the regular structure of the language as it was used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach. Structural Analysis Structural analysis† main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a engage.The method involves The makes a lot of noise. I heard yesterday. The use of test-frame† that can be sentences with empty slots in them. For example: By developing a set of test-frames of this type and discovering which forms fit the slots in the test-frame, we can produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language. Immediate Constituent Analysis: is designed to show how small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases.

Make a tipic for me Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Make a tipic for me - Essay Example This term post colonial is a loose definition. For example: the United States might also be described as a postcolonial country, but it is not perceived as such because of its position of power in world politics in the present, its displacement of native American populations, and its annexation of other parts of the world in what may be seen as a form of colonization. The term post colonial means a native people breaking free from an oppressor. America is not post colonial, because the Native Americans never conquered the settlers from Europe. However, in America’s defense, an attempt to create a melting pot has been attempted, although this has not been completely successful. The European empire is said to have held sway over more than 85% of the rest of the globe by the time of the First World War, having consolidated its control over several centuries. The sheer extent and duration of the European empire and its disintegration after the Second World War have led to widespread interest in postcolonial literature and criticism in our own times. (Deepika). When a country is liberated, either by force or peacefully, from colonists, some colonists remain. Not only do some colonists remain, but the traditions the native country endured remain. The European colonization of many nations transformed the native culture, and the colonizers actually living in these countries irrevocably. In a post colonial community a division exists between the natives and former colonists. Colonists want to control natives, to civilize them. The text book states Westerners see, â€Å"former colonial subjects as Others; as people different from â€Å"us†; as those in need of Western guidance, expertise, and guidance† (George and Trimbur, 522). An example of trying to civilize natives in a post colonial community is India. Robert Young writes: In

Buss & Gov Que Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Buss & Gov Que - Essay Example In order to understand the effectiveness of the system approach to innovation, it is significant to review how this system has led to strengthening of innovation in the United States of America. Innovation in the Unites States of America can be viewed as a role of free access to markets, capital, human resources, macroeconomic environment, and industrial structure (Bergek et al 2008, p 408). The Function approach has been used by policy makers in the United States, which in turn has strengthened the tendency of innovation system perspective to open up richer and more difficult innovation policies. In addition, policymakers also use the innovation system approach to define process goals of their interventions in terms of a changed functional pattern in industrial operation. They have done this by explaining the nature of these processes in terms of the outcome of a balance between various inducements and blocking mechanisms. The approach is applied to identify the key policy challenge s that exist. The components of the innovation system are networks, institutions, and actors who contribute to the function of diffusing, developing, and utilizing new products and processes. Although the system calls for collective actions and coordinated action, an innovation system approach is analytical in nature in the sense that it does not focus on how to exist as fully-fledged system. For instance, access to capital is very essential to commercializing output. Some areas in the US have taken longer periods to bring new items to market. Due to this, the availability of funds to fund the commercialization of new technologies is very essential in determining the performance of the business. In addition, the industrial structure in the United States has provided competitive environment where technological innovations can operate. Further, development is often linked with availability of technology developers whose role is to drive development by providing required technologies, resources, markets, and applications. Most industries innovate and improve on new products in order to be competitive. The level of resource mobilization in the United States is strong since it has managed to mobilize human capital through education and training in specific scientific and technological disciplines as well as entrepreneurial, finance and management. There is an association between industries and educational institutions whereby educational institutions offer educational programs that prepare students to venture into business by developing stronger association to the industrial sector via internships, cooperation, and research projects (Bergek et al 2008, p 410). The importance of innovation and diffusion process recommends the generation of positive external economies, which is a key process in the formation, and growth of business. The feature of United States markets and marketing potential has influenced the innovation and diffusion of its business. For instance, it has access to regional, local, and international markets in which it can sell its products. The nature of technological innovation changes with time so as the nature of industrial products and services in that industries and factories manufacture new products based on new and enhanced technology. Therefore, in order for commercialization to be successful like it is in the United States, it is vital to create a conducive surrounding to innovation and